Taurine

Synonym(s): 2-aminoethanesulfonic acid, 2-sulfoethylamine

Nutrient group: Amino acids

Sources and physiological effects

Dietary sources
Taurine is a sulfur-containing amino acid derivative that can be synthesized by the body. While mixed diets provide an additional 50 - 400 mg of taurine via the diet, vegetarians hardly consume any taurine. Fish and meat in particular provide high amounts of taurine, although the content is much higher when muscles are used intensively (e.g. wild animals).
Physiological effects
Fat metabolism	Important role in fat metabolism through formation of bile acid conjugates
Cardiovascular	Stimulation of the inflow and membrane binding of calcium Antiarrhythmic and a positive inotropic effect on the heart through stabilisation of the membrane potential
Immune system	Inhibition of apoptosis of immune cells Anti-inflammatory effect through reduction of TNF-α production
Antioxidant	As an antioxidant it protects e.g. the retina from oxidative damage

Recommended intake

Increased needs

Radiotherapy, cytotoxics, infants, for eye diseases, cardiovascular diseases, vegan diet, lack of cofactors (vitamin B6, cysteine, methionine)

Reference value according to the food labelling regulation
(=100 % TB-Marking on label)		N/A
Nutrient safety
Highest Observed Intake (HOI)	Highest dosage without negative effects as published in studies (unofficial value)	3 g/d

Detailed information

Conditionally essential amino acid taurine

Taurine is a sulfur-containing, antioxidant amino acid derivative, which is formed in the liver from L-cysteine or L-methionine with vitamin-B6 involvement. In contrast to other amino acids, taurine is not used to produce protein in the body and is therefore not proteinogenic. Taurine is nevertheless essential for infants and premature babies .¹ As a component of breast milk, this amino acid derivative is involved in brain development and the visual process of adolescents.² After glutamine, taurine is the most concentrated amino acid in the free amino acid pool. The central nervous system, the eye lens and the blood platelets are particularly rich in taurine.³ Individual non-essential amino acids can become essential under certain conditions. Such amino acids are called conditionally essential. Taurine belongs to this group because metabolic stress leads to tissue depletion of this amino acid. The endogenous synthesis rate is then not sufficient to cover the increased demand or to compensate for the depletion rates.²

Taurine as a potent antioxidant

Thanks to pronounced antioxidative effects, taurine protects cell membranes and tissue such as the retina of the eye from oxidative damage and is also involved in the detoxification of potentially toxic endogenous and exogenous compounds such as xenobiotics.

Taurine lowers the risk of gallstones

Together with glycine it is essential for the metabolism of bile acids and fat absorption.⁴ The bile acids synthesized from cholesterol in the liver are secreted into the small intestine as taurine conjugates. Studies suggest that taurine reduces the risk of gallstones.⁵

Renal insufficiency disturbs taurine balance

The kidneys play an important role in maintaining the concentration of physiological taurine. In chronic renal insufficiency, significantly reduced levels of antioxidant taurine in tissue and plasma can be observed. Oxidative processes can damage the glomeruli membranes and thus promote the development of kidney diseases. Taurine protects the membranes of the tubule epithelium and glomeruli from lipid oxidation in vitro and in vivo.⁶

Taurine for support of cardiovascular diseases

Taurine has positive inotropic, antihypertensive and antiarrhythmic effects. On the cellular level, it is involved in the regulation of the calcium and magnesium balance and in the stabilization of the heart muscle cells.^{3, 4} High taurine levels appear to be cardioprotective in patients with elevated cholesterol levels.⁷ In patients with chronic heart failure, 4-week therapeutic administration of 2 g of taurine 3 times daily significantly improved NYHA severity.⁸ For cardiovascular disease and hypertension, 500 mg to 4 g taurine daily is recommended.⁴

Protection factor for degenerative eye diseases

The cell layer of the photoreceptors of the retina has the highest concentration of taurine in the entire central nervous system. In animal studies, taurine depletion led to a degeneration of the photoreceptor cells.⁹ Presumably, taurine protects the polyunsaturated fatty acids (MUFAS) in the retina from lipid peroxidation by hypochlorite formed in the retina. For degenerative eye diseases, such as senile cataract or age-related macular degeneration, 500 mg to 2 g taurine daily is recommended as an adjuvant.⁴

Reduced taurine levels in diabetes mellitus

Diabetics can also benefit from adjuvant Taurine supplementation. In diabetics, lowered taurine levels in plasma and platelets and increased platelet aggregation can be observed. Supplements normalize platelet and plasma levels and platelet aggregation.¹⁰ In addition, studies show a positive effect of taurine on insulin resistance and on possible late complications of diabetes such as diabetic neuropathy or cataracts.¹¹

Taurine for athletes

Endurance athletes use taurine to support the strength and stroke volume of the heart muscle. The administration of 1 g of taurine in endurance athletes led to an improvement in endurance performance and a 20% increase in stroke volume during the regeneration phase.¹² In weight training and bodybuilding, taurine (e.g. 2 g taurine/d) is used to optimise the fluid balance of the muscle cells in order to create a good basis for effective muscle synthesis. In combination with glutamine, taurine can help to stabilise the immune system and reduce susceptibility to infections. Taurine depletion of tissue increases the risk of inflammation.^{3, 13}

Taurine in the aging process

Taurine also shows promise in its association with oxidative stress and the aging process. A double-blind randomized study of 24 participating women aged 55 to 70 years found that daily supplementation with 1.5 g of taurine over a 16-week period had a positive effect on markers of oxidative stress, with an increase in superoxide dismutase (SOD) and a decrease in a marker of lipid peroxidation, malondialdehyde (MDA).¹⁴

Reference values

Parameter	Substrate	Reference value	Description
Taurine	Urine	90 - 800 µmol/g	2nd morning urine, acidified
	Blood (serum)	57 - 228 nmol/ml	Amino acid test set, single parameters

Deficiency symptoms

Impact on	Symptoms
Bile metabolism	Disturbed bile acid conjugation and impairment of liver metabolism
Eye	Retinal degeneration
Cardiovascular	Accelerated risk of cardiomyopathies
Lung	Increased susceptibility to pneumonia and pulmonary edema
Immune system	Immune deficiency

Indications

Effect	Indication	Dosage
Physiological effects at a low intake	To stabilize the body's taurine levels in diabetes- and kidney diseases	1 – 4 g/d
	Therapeutic support for cardiovascular diseases	0.5 – 4 g/d
	Adjuvant for degenerative eye diseases such as AMD or cataract	0.5 – 4 g/d
	For support of the nerve metabolism and the liver-bile system	1 – 2 g/d
	In endurance athletes to improve endurance performance and reduce susceptibility to infection	1 – 4 g/d
	To promote anti-aging	1,5 g/d

Administration

General mode of administration
When	Taurine should be taken between meals to improve absorption.
Side effects
In rare cases, gastrointestinal disorders (such as diarrhoea) and drowsiness may occur. In patients with epilepsy, headaches, walking difficulties and nausea have been observed after taurine supplementation (1.5 g/d).
Contrainidcations
No contraindications are known to date.

Interactions

Drug interactions
None	According to current knowledge, there are no known relevant interactions.
Interactions with other nutrients
Trace elements	Taurine, when taken with iron, improves its plasma levels.

Description and related substances

Description of the micronutrient

Sulfur-containing non-proteinogenic amino acid

Related substances

L-Taurine

References

Referenzen

¹ Gröber, U. Mikronährstoffe: Metabolic Tuning –Prävention –Therapie, 3. Auflage. Stuttgart: WVG Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft Stuttgart, 2011.
² Hahn, A., Ströhle, A., Wolters, M. Ernährung: Physiologische Grundlagen, Prävention, Therapie, 3. neu bearbeitete und erweiterte Auflage. Stuttgart: Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft Stuttgart, 2016.
³ Gröber, U. Metabolic Tuning statt Doping: Mikronährstoffe im Sport, 1. Auflage. Stuttgart: S. Hirzel Verlag GmbH & Co., 2008.
⁴ Gröber, U. Orthomolekulare Medizin: Ein Leitfaden für Apotheker und Ärzte, 3. unveränderte Auflage. Stuttgart: WVG Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft Stuttgart, 2008.
⁵ Paauw, J. D., Davis, A. T. 1996. The effect of taurine supplementation on cholestasis in trauma patients. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 15(5).#
⁶ Trachtman, H., Sturman, J. A. 1996. Taurine: A therapeutic agent in experimental kidney disease. Amino Acids. 11:1–13.
⁷ Wójcik, O. P. et al. 2013. Serum taurine and risk of coronary heart disease: a prospective, nested case-control study. Eur J Nutr. 52(1):169-178. doi: 10.1007/s00394-011-0300-6.
⁸ Azuma, J. et al. 1985. Therapeutic effect of taurine in congestive heart failure: A double-blind crossover trail. Clin Cardiol. 8(5):276-282.
⁹ Lombardini, J. B. 1991. Taurine: Retinal function. Brain Research Reviews. 16(2):151-169.
¹⁰ Franconi, F. et al. 1995. Plasma and platelet taurine are reduced in subjects with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: Effects of Taurin supplementation. Am J Clin Nutr. 61(5):15-119.
¹¹ Ito, T., Schaffer, S. W., Azuma, J. 2012. The potential usefulness of taurine on diabetes mellitus and its complications. Amino Acids. 42(5):1529-39. doi: 10.1007/s00726-011-0883-5.
¹² Baum, M., Weiss, M. 2001. The influence of a taurine containing drink on cardiac parameters before and after exercise measured by echocardiography. Amino Acids. 20(1):75-85.
¹³ Schuller-Levis, G. B., Park E. 2004. Taurine and Its Chloramine: Modulators of Immunity. Neurochemical Research. 29(1):117–126.
¹⁴ Abud, G. F. et al. 2022. Taurine as a possible antiaging therapy: A controlled clinical trial on taurine antioxidant activity in women ages 55 to 70. Nutrition. 101:111706.

References Interactions
Stargrove, M. B. et al. Herb, Nutrient and Drug Interactions: Clinical Implications and Therapeutic Strategies, 1. Auflage. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Health Sciences, 2008.
Gröber, U. Mikronährstoffe: Metabolic Tuning –Prävention –Therapie, 3. Auflage. Stuttgart: WVG Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft Stuttgart, 2011.
Gröber, U. Arzneimittel und Mikronährstoffe: Medikationsorientierte Supplementierung, 3. aktualisierte und erweiterte Auflage. Stuttgart: WVG Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft Stuttgart, 2014.